figure of speech（修辞格）
similarities:
simile明喻。
作用：用作描述时，itcanproduce**ividpictureofaperson,anodject,anactivity,aphenomenon
例句：he is like a wolf in sheep's clothing.
用作阐述论点时，it can help you turn an abstract principle into something easy to understand.
例句：habit may be likened to a cable; every day we we**e a thread, and soon we cannot breakit.
metaphor暗喻。
作用：同明喻。
例句：he is a wolf in sheep's clothing.
analogy类比。
作用：阐述论点时，it can turn an abstract concept into something concrete, or make an abstractidea plain and easily comrehensible
用作说服时，it can make the persuasion easy-going and convincing
例句：as cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country.
allegory讽喻。
作用：用具体阐述抽象use a concrete figure to illustrate an abstract idea, helping the readerrealize the truth or theory
例句：no rose without a thorn.
personificaiton拟人。
作用：make one's point with extraordinary emphasis and intensify the reader's expression; canturn an abstract concept or phenomenon into a clear concrete figure
例句：the wind whistled through the trees.
the night gently lays her hand at our fevered heads.
zoosemy拟物。
作用：can be used to express various feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer
例句：he slept like a dog.
2. substitution：
metonymy借代/换喻。
作用：used a certain feature or a certain context stands for that type of people
例句：the grey hair should be respected.
the boy was brought up on the bottle.
i had the muscle, and they made money out of it.
synecdoche提喻。
作用：use a part for the whole or the whole for a part
例句：he is the newton of the century.
two heads are better than one
antonomasia换称。
作用：use a proper name专有名词。
for an idea
例句：to meet one's waterloo
allusion典故。
和换称相似。
hyperbole夸张。
作用：exaggerate the fact or state of affairs
he almost died laughing.
understatement低调陈述。
例句：this problem is not above us.
euphemism委婉。
例句：he is out visiting the necessary.
periphrasis
3. playing double meanings:
pun双关。
例句：if we don't hang together, we shall hang separately.
what does that lawyer do after he dies? lie still.
irony反讽。
例句："of course, you only carry large notes, no small change on you." the waiter said to thebeggar.
oxymoron矛盾修饰法。
例句：the state of this house is cheerless welcome.
this is a victorious defeat.
transferred epithet转移修饰法。
例句：,whohassincedrunk himself to death.
do you think i will h**e blood money?
there is a suprised silence in the classroom.
syllepsis一语双叙。
he lost the game and his temper.
the man stood in a high place and a high manner.
zeugma轭式搭配。
例句：the sun shall not burn you by day, nor the moon by night.
4. repetition
alliteration头韵。
例句：how and why he had come to princeton, new jersey is a story of struggle, success, andsadness.
peter piper picked a peck of picking pepper.
assonance母韵。
例句：it's fair and square affair from the beginning to the end.
consonance尾韵。
例句：april showers bring may flowers.
5. imitation
parody仿拟。
例句：a friend in need is a friend to be **oided.
onomatopoeia拟声。
例句：presently there came the click of high-heeled shoes.
6. handling contrastive and coordinated structures
parallelism平行结构。
例句：no one can be perfectly free till all are free; no one can be perfectly moral till all are moral;no one can be perfectly happay till all are happy.
antithesis平行对照。
例句：give me liberty, or give death.
more haste, less speed.
艺术标准三。
逻辑logos
情感pathos
人格ethos
修辞三等级。
词语选择selecting words and phrases
句式变化seeking sentence variety
组段谋篇writing paragraphs and arrange paragraphs into a complete text
选词五原则。
准确exactness
简洁economy
新颖freshness
生动vividness
恰当approriateness
句式类型。从功能分，有。
陈述句declarative sentence
疑问句interrogative sentence
祈使句imperative sentence
感叹句exclamatory sentence
从结构分，有。
简单句****** sentence
复合句compound sentence
复杂句complex sentence
复合复杂句compound-complex sentence
其他，有。渐进句cumulative sentence（层层递进）
松散句loose sentence（两个句子可以互相调换并且不影响本意）
掉尾句periodic sentence（结论重点在句尾）
突降句anticlimactic sentence（要避免使用这种句子）
反问句rhetorical question（不需要回答的句子）
长短句使用方法。
一系列短句：用于描述故事中紧张或戏剧性的情节（speed，tense，dramatic，story）
一系列长句中用单个短句：改变节奏，若在句尾，其强调作用，精辟的总结（change rhythm,emphasis,pithy summation）
长句：适合细节描述，解释和辩论。
让想法流动起来。
连接词。转折：but, however, nvertheless, by contrast, in spite of this, on the other hand...
并列递进：and, also, another, besides, furthermore, in addition, in the same way, likewise, next,moreover, similarly...
时间空间：earlier, later, at the same time, meanwhile, soon; here, there, farther on, nearby...
因果：as a result, consequently, therefore, thus...
引用：as an illustration, for example, for instance, another example...
重复总结：as i h**e said, in other words, to repeat, in brief, in short, in summary, to sum up...
顺序：first of all, first/firstly, then, at last, finally...
文章主题。说明文exposition: 演绎法）
2.分类classification，过程分析analysis，比较comparison
议**argumentation:逻辑推理logical reasoning
记叙文narraition:背景setting，情节plot（时间次序temporal order，空间次序spatial order），角色character
描写文description:突出形象，丰富细节verbal picture, typical details
词义。参考意义referential meaning
社会意义social meaning（反映社会特征、社会阶段、地域、性别）
感情意义affective meaning（带有感**彩：褒义、贬义、中性）
指称意义denotation和隐含意义connotation
denotation: specific, literal, explicit
connotation: implicit（比如，黄色有指********ographic literature，黄种人yellow race，胆小cowardly，警告warning的意思）
概括化generalization和具体化specification
应用。概括：索引index，摘要abstract，导语lead in，提纲outline
具体：描写细节，举具体例子。
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